Factors influencing formation Gender identity

1 factors influencing formation

1.1 nature vs. nurture
1.2 biological factors

1.2.1 intersex people
1.2.2 biological causes of transgender , transsexuality


1.3 social , environmental factors

1.3.1 parental establishment of gender roles

factors influencing formation
nature vs. nurture

although formation of gender identity not understood, many factors have been suggested influencing development. in particular, extent determined socialization (environmental factors) versus innate (biological) factors ongoing debate in psychology, known nature versus nurture . both factors thought play role. biological factors influence gender identity include pre- , post-natal hormone levels. while genetic makeup influences gender identity, not inflexibly determine it.

social factors may influence gender identity include ideas regarding gender roles conveyed family, authority figures, mass media, , other influential people in child s life. when children raised individuals adhere stringent gender roles, more behave in same way, matching gender identity corresponding stereotypical gender patterns. language plays role: children, while learning language, learn separate masculine , feminine characteristics , unconsciously adjust own behavior these predetermined roles. social learning theory posits children furthermore develop gender identity through observing , imitating gender-linked behaviors, , being rewarded or punished behaving way, being shaped people surrounding them through trying imitate , follow them.

a well-known example in nature versus nurture debate case of david reimer, otherwise known john/joan . baby, reimer went through faulty circumcision, losing male genitalia. psychologist john money convinced reimer’s parents raise him girl. reimer grew girl, dressing in girl clothes , surrounded girl toys, did not feel girl. after tried commit suicide @ age 13, told had been born male genitalia, underwent surgery reconstruct. went against money’s hypothesis biology had nothing gender identity or human sexual orientation.

biological factors

several prenatal, biological factors, including genes , hormones, may affect gender identity. biochemical theory of gender identity suggests people acquire gender identities through such factors rather socialization.

hormonal influences complex; sex-determining hormones produced @ stage of foetal development, , if prenatal hormone levels altered, phenotype progression may altered well, , natural predisposition of brain toward 1 sex may not match genetic make-up of fetus or external sexual organs.

hormones may affect differences between males , females verbal , spatial abilities, memory, , aggression; prenatal hormone exposure affects how hypothalamus regulates hormone secretion later in life, women s sex hormones follow[ing] monthly cycle [while] men’s sex hormones not follow such pattern.

intersex people

a survey of research literature 1955–2000 suggests more 1 in every hundred individuals may have intersex characteristic. intersex human or other animal 1 possessing of several variations in sex characteristics including chromosomes, gonads, sex hormones, or genitals that, according un office of high commissioner human rights, not fit typical binary notions of male or female bodies . intersex variation may complicate initial sex assignment , assignment may not consistent child s future gender identity. reinforcing sex assignments through surgical , hormonal means may violate individual s rights.

a 2012 clinical review paper found between 8.5% , 20% of people intersex variations experienced gender dysphoria. sociological research in australia, country third x sex classification, shows 19% of people born atypical sex characteristics selected x or other option, while 52% women, 23% men, , 6% unsure. @ birth, 52% of persons in study assigned female, , 41% assigned male.

a study reiner & gearhart provides insight can happen when genetically male children cloacal exstrophy sexually assigned female , raised girls, according optimal gender policy developed john money: in sample of 14 children, follow-up between ages of 5 12 showed 8 of them identified boys, , of subjects had @ least moderately male-typical attitudes , interests, providing support argument genetic variables affect gender identity , behavior independent of socialization.

biological causes of transgender , transsexuality

some studies have investigated whether or not there link between biological variables , transgender or transsexual identity. several studies have shown sexually dimorphic brain structures in transsexuals shifted away associated birth sex , towards associated preferred sex. in particular, bed nucleus of stria terminalis or bstc (a constituent of basal ganglia of brain affected prenatal androgens) of trans women similar cisgender women s , unlike men s. similar brain structure differences have been noted between gay , heterosexual men, , between lesbian , heterosexual women. study suggests transsexuality may have genetic component.

research suggests same hormones promote differentiation of sex organs in utero elicit puberty , influence development of gender identity. different amounts of these male or female sex hormones within person can result in behavior , external genitalia not match norm of sex assigned @ birth, , in person acting , looking identified gender.

social , environmental factors

in 1955, john money proposed gender identity malleable , determined whether child raised male or female in childhood. money s hypothesis has since been discredited, scholars have continued study effect of social factors on gender identity formation. in 1960s , 1970s, factors such absence of father, mother s wish daughter, or parental reinforcement patterns suggested influences; more recent theories suggesting parental psychopathology might partly influence gender identity formation have received minimal empirical evidence, 2004 article noting solid evidence importance of postnatal social factors lacking. 2008 study found parents of gender-dysphoric children showed no signs of psychopathological issues aside mild depression in mothers.

it has been suggested attitudes of child s parents may affect child s gender identity, although evidence minimal.

parental establishment of gender roles

parents not support gender nonconformity more have children firmer , stricter views on gender identity , gender roles. recent literature suggests trend towards less well-defined gender roles , identities, studies of parental coding of toys masculine, feminine, or neutral indicate parents increasingly code kitchens , in cases dolls neutral rather exclusively feminine. however, emily kane found many parents still showed negative responses items, activities, or attributes considered feminine, such domestic skills, nurturance, , empathy. research has indicated many parents attempt define gender sons in manner distances sons femininity, kane stating “the parental boundary maintenance work evident sons represents crucial obstacle limiting boys options, separating boys girls, devaluing activities marked feminine both boys , girls, , bolstering gender inequality , heteronormativity.”research radical lesbians untie self definition of woman , man regardless of sexual orientation; naples dives binary gender roles , how should enforced in queer couples children have heterosexual orientation. in gay couple, cis-gendered persons outside of community label gay couples having 1 “women” , other “man”. in reality not true, , queer couples should open how raise child , if want establish normal mom , dad roles.naples, nancy a. “from sws president: queer parenting in new millennium.” gender , society, vol. 18, no. 6, 2004, pp. 679–684. jstor, www.jstor.org/stable/4149389. radicalesbians. “woman identified woman.” 1970. print.

many parents form gendered expectations child before born, after determining child s sex through technology such ultrasound. child arrives gender-specific name, games, , ambitions. once child s sex determined, children raised in accordance man or woman, fitting male or female gender role defined partly parents.

when considering parents social class, lower-class families typically hold traditional gender roles, father works , mother, may work out of financial necessity, still takes care of household. however, middle-class professional couples typically negotiate division of labor , hold egalitarian ideology. these different views on gender child s parents can shape child s understanding of gender child s development of gender.

within study conducted hillary halpern hypothesized, , proven, parent behaviors, rather parent beliefs, regarding gender better predictors child’s attitude on gender. concluded mother’s behavior influential on child’s assumptions of child’s own gender. example, mothers practiced more traditional behaviors around children resulted in son displaying fewer stereotypes of male roles while daughter displayed more stereotypes of female roles. no correlation found between father’s behavior , children’s knowledge of stereotypes of own gender. concluded, however, fathers held belief of equality between sexes had children, sons, displayed fewer preconceptions of opposite gender.