Methods of self-medication Zoopharmacognosy

1 methods of self-medication

1.1 ingestion

1.1.1 ants
1.1.2 mammals

1.1.2.1 geophagy


1.1.3 birds
1.1.4 invertebrates


1.2 absorption , adsorption
1.3 topical application

1.3.1 mammals
1.3.2 birds

methods of self-medication

some animals ingest or apply substance when appear well, suggesting behaviour preventative or prophylactic. in other cases, animals ingest or apply substance when unwell, suggesting behaviour therapeutic or curative. there 3 methods of self-medication, namely, ingestion, absorption, or topical application.

ingestion

many examples of zoopharmacognosy involve animal ingesting substance (potential) medicinal properties.

ants

ants infected beauveria bassiana, fungus, selectively consume harmful substances (reactive oxygen species, ros) upon exposure fungal pathogen, yet avoid these in absence of infection.

mammals

a variety of simian species have been observed medicate when ill using materials such plants.



a conceptual representation of how pre- , post-ingestive events control manifestation of self-medicative behavior in mammalian herbivores.

great apes consume plants have no nutritional values have beneficial effects on gut acidity or combat intestinal parasitic infection.

chimpanzees select bitter leaves chewing. parasite infection drops noticeably after chimpanzees chew leaves of pith (vernonia amyddalina), have anti-parasitic activity against schistosoma, plasmodium , leishmania. chimpanzees don t consume plant on regular basis, when eat it, in small amounts individuals appear ill. jane goodall witnessed chimpanzees eating particular bushes, apparently make vomit. there reports chimpanzees swallow whole leaves of particular rough-leaved plants such aneilema aequinoctiale; these remove parasitic worms intestines.

chimpanzees eat leaves of herbaceous desmodium gangeticum. undigested, non-chewed leaves recovered in 4% of faecal samples of wild chimpanzees , clumps of sharp-edged grass leaves in 2%. leaves have rough surface or sharp-edges , fact not chewed , excreted whole indicates not ingested nutritional purposes. furthermore, leaf-swallowing restricted rainy season when parasite re-infections more common, , parasitic worms (oesophagostomum stephanostomum) found leaves.

chimpanzees, bonobos, , gorillas eat fruits of aframomum angustifolium. laboratory assays of homogenized fruit , seed extracts show significant anti-microbial activity. illustrating medicinal knowledge of species, apes have been observed selecting particular part of medicinal plant taking off leaves , breaking stem suck out juice.

anubis baboons (papio anubis) , hamadryas baboons (papio hamadryas) in ethiopia use fruits , leaves of balanites aegyptiaca control schistosomiasis. fruits contain diosgenin, hormone precursor presumably hinders development of schistosomes.

african elephants (loxodonta africana) apparently self-medicate induce birth chewing on leaves of particular tree family boraginaceae; kenyan women brew tea tree induce childbirth.

white-nosed coatis (nasua narica) in panama take menthol-scented resin freshly scraped bark of trattinnickia aspera (burseraceae) , vigorously rub own fur or of other coatis, possibly kill ectoparasites such fleas, ticks, , lice, biting insects such mosquitoes; resin contains triterpenes α - , β-amyrin, eudesmane derivative β-selinene, , sesquiterpene lactone 8β-hydroxyasterolide.

domestic cats , dogs select , ingest plant material, apparently induce vomiting.

indian wild boars selectively dig , eat roots of pigweed humans use anthelmintic. mexican folklore indicates pigs eat pomegranate roots because contain alkaloid toxic tapeworms.

a study on domestic sheep (ovis aries) has provided clear experimental proof of self-medication via individual learning. lambs in treatment group allowed consume foods , toxins (grain, tannins, oxalic acid) lead malaise (negative internal states) , allowed eat substance known alleviate each malaise (sodium bentonite, polyethylene glycol , dicalcium phosphate, respectively). control lambs ate same foods , medicines, disassociated temporally did not recuperate illness. after conditioning, lambs fed grain or food tannins or oxalates , allowed choose 3 medicines. treatment animals preferred eat specific compound known rectify state of malaise induced food ingested. however, control animals did not change pattern of use of medicines, irrespective of food consumed before choice. other ruminants learn self-medicate against gastrointestinal parasites increasing consumption of plant secondary compounds antiparasitic actions.

standard laboratory cages prevent mice performing several natural behaviours highly motivated. consequence, laboratory mice develop abnormal behaviours indicative of emotional disorders such depression , anxiety. improve welfare, these cages enriched items such nesting material, shelters , running wheels. sherwin , olsson tested whether such enrichment influenced consumption of midazolam, drug used treat anxiety in humans. mice in standard cages, standard cages unpredictable husbandry, or enriched cages, given choice of drinking either non-drugged water or solution of midazolam. mice in standard , unpredictable cages drank greater proportion of anxiolytic solution mice enriched cages, presumably because had been experiencing greater anxiety. studies indicated autoimmune (mrl/lpr) mice readily consume solutions cyclophosphamide, immunosuppressive drug prevents inflammatory damage internal organs. however, further studies provided contradictory evidence.

geophagy

many animals eat soil or clay, behaviour known geophagy. clay primary ingredient of kaolin. has been proposed primates, can logically extended other animals, there 4 hypotheses relating geophagy in alleviating gastrointestinal disorders or upsets:

furthermore, 2 hypotheses pertain geophagy in supplementing minerals and/or elements:

tapirs, forest elephants, colobus monkeys, mountain gorillas , chimpanzees seek out , eat clay, absorbs intestinal bacteria , toxins , alleviates stomach upset , diarrhoea. cattle eat clay-rich termite mound soil, deactivates ingested pathogens or fruit toxins.

birds

parrots eating earth

many parrot species in americas, africa, , papua new guinea consume kaolin or clay, both releases minerals , absorbs toxic compounds gut. great bustards eat blister beetles of genus meloe decrease parasite load in digestive system; cantharidin, toxic compound in blister beetles, can kill great bustard if many beetles ingested. great bustards may eat toxic blister beetles of genus meloe increase sexual arousal of males.

invertebrates

woolly bear caterpillars (grammia incorrupta) lethally endoparasitised tachinid flies. caterpillars ingest plant toxins called pyrrolizidine alkaloids, improve survival of conferring resistance against flies. crucially, parasitised caterpillars more non-parasitised caterpillars ingest large amounts of pyrrolizidine alkaloids, , excessive ingestion of these toxins reduces survival of non-parasitised caterpillars. these 3 findings consistent adaptive plasticity theory.

the tobacco hornworm ingests nicotine reduces colony growth , toxicity of bacillus thuringiensis, leading increased survival of hornworm.

absorption , adsorption

the swallowing of whole leaves apes without chewing has been observed on 40 plant species.

wild chimpanzees seek whole leaves of aspilia plant. these contain thiarubrine-a, chemical active against intestinal nematode parasites, however, broken-down stomach. chimpanzees pick aspilia leaves and, rather chewing them, roll them around in mouths, long 25 seconds. swallow capsule-like leaves whole. many 15 35 aspilia leaves may used in each bout of behaviour, particularly in rainy season when there many parasitic larvae leading increased risk of infection.

bonobos swallow non-chewed stem-strips of (manniophyton fulvum). despite plant being abundantly available year, m. fulvum ingested @ specific times, in small amounts, , small proportion of bonobos in each group.

topical application

some animals apply substances medicinal properties skin. again, can prophylactic or curative. in cases, known self-anointing.

mammals

a female capuchin monkey in captivity observed using tools covered in sugar-based syrup groom wounds , of infant.

north american brown bears (ursos arctos) make paste of osha roots (ligusticum porteri) , saliva , rub through fur repel insects or soothe bites. plant, locally known bear root , contains 105 active compounds, such coumarins may repel insects when topically applied. navajo indians said have learned use root medicinally bear treating stomach aches , infections.

a range of primates rub millipedes onto fur , skin; millipedes contain benzoquinones, compounds known potently repellent insects.

tufted capuchins (cebus apella) rub various parts of body carpenter ants (camponotus rufipes) or allow ants crawl on them, in behaviour called anting. capuchins combine anting urinating hands , mixing ants urine.

birds

more 200 species of song birds wipe ants perform anting. birds either grasp ants in bill , wipe them vigorously along spine of each feather down base, or roll in ant hills twisting , turning ants crawl through feathers. birds commonly use ants spray formic acid. in laboratory tests, acid harmful feather lice. vapour alone can kill them.

some birds select nesting material rich in anti-microbial agents may protect , young harmful infestations or infections. european starlings (sturnus vulgaris) preferentially select , line nests wild carrot (daucus carota); chicks nests lined have greater levels of haemoglobin compared nests not, although there no difference in weight or feather development of chicks. laboratory studies show wild carrot substantially reduces emergence of instars of mites. house sparrows (passer domesticus) have been observed line nests materials neem tree (azadirachta indica) change quinine-rich leaves of krishnachua tree (caesalpinia pulcherrima) during outbreak of malaria; quinine controls symptoms of malaria.