History of usage and practice Jihad

1 history of usage , practice

1.1 classical

1.1.1 muslim conquests


1.2 post-classical usage
1.3 contemporary fundamentalist usage

1.3.1 islamism
1.3.2 abdullah azzam


1.4 shia
1.5 evolution of jihad

history of usage , practice

the practice of periodic raids bedouins against enemy tribes , settlements collect spoils predates revelations of quran. according scholars (such james turner johnson), while islamic leaders instilled hearts of warriors belief in jihad holy war , ghaza (raids), fundamental structure of bedouin warfare remained, ... raiding collect booty . according jonathan berkey, quran s statements in support of jihad may have been directed against muhammad s local enemies, pagans of mecca or jews of medina, these same statements redirected once new enemies appeared. according scholar (majid khadduri), shift in focus conquest , spoils collecting of non-bedouin unbelievers , away traditional inter-bedouin tribal raids, may have made possible islam not expand avoid self-destruction.

classical

date muslim law laid down jihad in military sense 1 of principal obligations of both head of muslim state , declared jihad, , muslim community. according legal historian sadakat kadri, islamic jurists first developed classical doctrine of jihad towards end of eighth century , using doctrine of naskh (that god gradually improved revelations on course of muhammed s mission) subordinated verses in quran emphasizing harmony more more confrontational verses of muhammad s later years , linked verses on exertion (jihad) of fighting (qital). muslims jurists of eighth century developed paradigm of international relations divides world 3 conceptual divisions, dar al-islam/dar al-‛adl/dar al-salam (house of islam/house of justice/house of peace), dar al-harb/dar al-jawr (house of war/house of injustice, oppression), , dar al-sulh/dar al-‛ahd/dār al-muwada‛ah (house of peace/house of covenant/house of reconciliation). second/eighth century jurist sufyan al-thawri (d. 161/778) headed khadduri calls pacifist school, maintained jihad defensive war, states jurists held position, among whom refers hanafi jurists, al-awza‛i (d. 157/774), malik ibn anas (d. 179/795), , other jurists, stressed tolerance should shown unbelievers, scripturaries , advised imam prosecute war when inhabitants of dar al-harb came conflict islam. duty of jihad collective 1 (fard al-kifaya). directed caliph might delayed when convenient, negotiating truces ten years @ time. within classical islamic jurisprudence – development of dated into—the first few centuries after prophet s death—jihad consisted of wars against unbelievers, apostates, , form of warfare permissible. (another source—bernard lewis—states fighting rebels , bandits legitimate though not form of jihad, , while classical perception , presentation of jihad warfare in field against foreign enemy, internal jihad against infidel renegade, or otherwise illegitimate regime not unknown. )

the primary aim of jihad warfare not conversion of non-muslims islam force, rather expansion , defense of islamic state. in theory, jihad continue until mankind either embraced islam or submitted authority of muslim state. there truces before achieved, no permanent peace. 1 died on path of god martyr, (shahid), sins remitted , secured immediate entry paradise. however, argue martyrdom never automatic because within god s exclusive province judge worthy of designation.

classical manuals of islamic jurisprudence contained section called book of jihad, rules governing conduct of war covered @ great length. such rules include treatment of nonbelligerents, women, children (also cultivated or residential areas), , division of spoils. such rules offered protection civilians. spoils include ghanimah (spoils obtained actual fighting), , fai (obtained without fighting i.e. when enemy surrenders or flees).

the first documentation of law of jihad written abd al-rahman al-awza , muhammad ibn al-hasan al-shaybani. (it grew out of debates surfaced following muhammad s death.) although islamic scholars have differed on implementation of jihad, there consensus amongst them concept of jihad include armed struggle against persecution , oppression.

as important jihad was, was/is not considered 1 of pillars of islam . according 1 scholar (majid khadduri, because unlike pillars of prayer, fasting, etc., jihad collective obligation of whole muslim community, (meaning if duty fulfilled part of community ceases obligatory on others ), , carried out islamic state. belief of jurists, no exception , did not apply defense of muslim community sudden attack, in case jihad , individual obligation of believers, including women , children.

early muslim conquests


age of caliphs

in era inspired classical islam (rashidun caliphate) , lasted less century, jihad spread realm of islam include millions of subjects, , area extending borders of india , china pyrenees , atlantic . 2 empires impeding advance of islam persian sassanian empire , byzantine empire. 657 persian empire conquered , 661 byzantine empire reduced fraction of former size.

the role of religion in these conquests debated. medieval arabic authors believed conquests commanded god, , presented them orderly , disciplined, under command of caliph. many modern historians question whether hunger , desertification, rather jihad, motivating force in conquests. famous historian william montgomery watt argued “most of participants in [early islamic] expeditions thought of nothing more booty ... there no thought of spreading religion of islam.” similarly, edward j. jurji argues motivations of arab conquests not “for propagation of islam ... military advantage, economic desires, [and] attempt strengthen hand of state , enhance sovereignty ... of determining factors.” recent explanations cite both material , religious causes in conquests.

post-classical usage

according authors, more spiritual definitions of jihad developed sometime after 150 years of jihad wars , muslim territorial expansion, , particularly after mongol invaders sacked baghdad , overthrew abbasid caliphate. historian hamilton gibb states in historic [muslim] community concept of jihad had gradually weakened , @ length had been largely reinterpreted in terms of sufi ethics.

islamic scholar rudolph peters wrote stagnation of islamic expansionism, concept of jihad became internalized moral or spiritual struggle. earlier classical works on fiqh emphasized jihad war god s religion, peters found. later muslims (in case modernists such muhammad abduh , rashid rida) emphasized defensive aspect of jihad—which similar western concept of war . today, muslim authors recognize wars fought purpose of territorial defense wars fought defense of religious freedom legitimate.

bernard lewis states while islamic theologians in classical period (750–1258 ce) understood jihad military endeavor, after islamic conquest stagnated , caliphate broke smaller states irresistible , permanent jihad came end . jihad became unfeasible postponed historic messianic time. when ottoman empire carried on new holy war of expansion in seventeenth century, war not universally pursued . made no attempt recover spain or sicily.

when ottoman caliph called great jihad muslims against allied powers during world war i, there hopes , fears non-turkish muslims side ottoman turkey, appeal did not [unite] muslim world , , muslims did not turn on non-muslim commanders in allied forces. (the war led end of caliphate ottoman empire entered on side of war s losers , surrendered agreeing viciously punitive conditions. these overturned popular war hero mustafa kemal, secularist , later abolished caliphate.)

contemporary fundamentalist usage

the fulani jihad states of west africa, c. 1830

with islamic revival, new fundamentalist movement arose, different interpretations of islam, placed increased emphasis on jihad. wahhabi movement spread across arabian peninsula starting in 18th century, emphasized jihad armed struggle. wars against western colonial forces declared jihad: senussi religious order declared jihad against italian rule of libya in 1912, , mahdi in sudan declared jihad against both british , egyptians in 1881.

other anti-colonial conflicts involving jihad include:

padri war (1821–1838)
java war (1825–1830)
barelvi mujahidin war (1826–1831)
caucasus war (1828–1859)
algerian resistance movement (1832–1847)
somali dervishes (1896–1920)
moro rebellion (1899–1913)
aceh war (1873–1913)
basmachi movement (1916–1934)

the so-called fulbe jihad states , few other jihad states in west africa established series of offensive wars in 19th century. none of these jihad movements victorious. powerful, sokoto caliphate, lasted century until british defeated in 1903.

early islamism

in twentieth century, many islamist groups appeared, being influenced social frustrations following economic crises of 1970s , 1980s. 1 of first islamist groups, muslim brotherhood emphasized physical struggle , martyrdom in credo: god our objective; quran our constitution; prophet our leader; struggle (jihad) our way; , death sake of god highest of our aspirations. in tract on jihad , founder hasan al-banna warned readers against widespread belief among many muslims struggles of heart more demanding struggles sword, , called on egyptians prepare jihad against british, (making him first influential scholar since 1857 india uprising call jihad of sword). group called jihad against new jewish state of israel in 1940s, , palestinian branch, hamas, called jihad against israel when first intifada started. in 2012, general guide (leader) in egypt, mohammed badie declared jihad save jerusalem usurpers , [liberate] palestine claws of occupation ... personal duty muslims. muslims must participate in jihad [donating] money or [sacrificing] life ... many other figures prominent in global jihad started in muslim brotherhood—abdullah azzam, bin-laden s mentor, started in muslim brotherhood of jordan; ayman al-zawahiri, bin-laden s deputy, joined egyptian muslim brotherhood @ age of 14; , khalid sheikh mohammed, planned 9/11 attack, claims have joined kuwaiti muslim brotherhood @ age 16.

according rudolph peters , natana j. delong-bas, new fundamentalist movement brought reinterpretation of islam , own writings on jihad. these writings tended less interested , involved legal arguments, different of schools of islamic law had say, or in solutions potential situations. emphasize more moral justifications , underlying ethical values of rules, detailed elaboration of rules. tended ignore distinction between greater , lesser jihad because distracted muslims development of combative spirit believe required rid islamic world of western influences .

contemporary fundamentalists influenced jurist ibn taymiyya s, , journalist sayyid qutb s, ideas on jihad. ibn taymiyya hallmark themes included

the permissibility of overthrowing ruler classified unbeliever due failure adhere islamic law,
the absolute division of world dar al-kufr , dar al-islam,
the labeling of not adhering 1 s particular interpretation of islam unbeliever, and
the call blanket warfare against non-muslims, particularly jews , christians.

ibn taymiyya recognized possibility of jihad against `heretical` , `deviant` muslims within dar al-islam. identified heretical , deviant muslims propagated innovations (bida ) contrary quran , sunna ... legitimated jihad against refused abide islamic law or revolted against true muslim authorities. used broad definition of constituted aggression or rebellion against muslims, make jihad not permissible necessary. ibn taymiyya paid careful , lengthy attention questions of martyrdom , benefits of jihad: in jihad 1 can live , die in ultimate happiness, both in world , in hereafter. abandoning means losing entirely or partially both kinds of happiness.`

sayyid qutb, islamist author

the highly influential muslim brotherhood leader, sayyid qutb, preached in book milestones jihad, `is not temporary phase permanent war ... jihad freedom cannot cease until satanic forces put end , religion purified god in toto.` ibn taymiyya, qutb focused on martyrdom , jihad, added theme of treachery , enmity towards islam of christians , jews. if non-muslims waging war against islam , jihad against them not offensive defensive. insisted christians , jews mushrikeen (not monotheists) because (he alleged) gave priests or rabbis authority make laws, obeying laws made them [and] not permitted god , obedience laws , judgments sort of worship .

also influential egyptian muhammad abd-al-salam faraj, wrote pamphlet al-farida al-gha iba (jihad, neglected duty). while qutb felt jihad proclamation of liberation humanity , farag stressed jihad enable muslims rule world , reestablish caliphate. emphasized importance of fighting near enemy —muslim rulers believed apostates, such president of egypt, anwar sadat, whom group assassinated—rather traditional enemy, israel. faraj believed if muslims followed duty , waged jihad, supernatural divine intervention provide victory:

this means muslim has first of duty execute command fight own hands. [once has done so] god intervene [and change] laws of nature. in way victory achieved through hands of believers means of god s [intervention].

faraj included deceiving enemy, lying him, attacking night (even if leads accidentally killing innocents), , felling , burning trees of infidel, islamically legitimate methods of fighting. although faraj executed in 1982 part in assassination of egyptian president anwar sadat, pamphlet , ideas highly influential, @ least among egyptian islamist extremist groups. (in 1993, example, 1106 persons killed or wounded in terror attacks in egypt. more police (120) terrorists (111) killed year , several senior police officials , bodyguards shot dead in daylight ambushes. ) ayman al-zawahiri, later #2 person in al-qaeda, faraj s friend , followed strategy of targeting near enemy many years.

abdullah azzam

in 1980s muslim brotherhood cleric abdullah azzam, called father of modern global jihad , opened possibility of waging jihad against unbelievers in here , now. azzam issued fatwa calling jihad against soviet occupation of afghanistan, declaring individual obligation able bodied muslims because defensive jihad repel invaders. fatwa endorsed number of clerics including leading saudi clerics such sheikh abd al-aziz ibn baz.

azzam claimed looks state of muslims today find great misfortune abandonment of jihad , , warned without jihad, shirk (joining partners allah) spread , become dominant . jihad important repel unbelievers important obligation after iman [faith] .

azzam argued broader interpretation of permissible kill in jihad, interpretation think may have influenced of students, including osama bin laden.

many muslims know hadith in prophet ordered companions not kill women or children, etc., few know there exceptions case ... in summary, muslims not have stop attack on mushrikeen, if non-fighting women , children present.

a charismatic speaker, azzam traveled dozens of cities in europe , north american encourage support jihad in afghanistan. inspired young muslims stories of miraculous deeds during jihad—mujahideen defeated vast columns of soviet troops virtually single-handed, had been run on tanks survived, shot unscathed bullets. angels witnessed riding battle on horseback, , falling bombs intercepted birds, raced ahead of jets form protective canopy on warriors. in afghanistan set services office foreign fighters , support former student osama bin laden , saudi charities, foreign mujahideed or would-be mujahideen provided for. between 1982 , 1992 estimated 35,000 individual muslim volunteers went afghanistan fight soviets , afghan regime. thousands more attended frontier schools teeming former , future fighters. saudi arabia , other conservative gulf monarchies provided considerable financial support jihad—$600 million year 1982. cia funded azzam s maktab al-khidamat , others via operation cyclone.

azzam saw afghanistan beginning of jihad repel unbelievers many countries—the southern soviet republics of central asia, bosnia, philippines, kashmir, somalia, eritrea, spain, , home country of palestine. defeat of soviets in afghanistan said have amplified jihadist tendency fringe phenomenon major force in muslim world.

having tasted victory in afghanistan, many of thousands of fighters returned home country such egypt, algeria, kashmir or places bosnia continue jihad. not former fighters agreed azzam s chioice of targets (azzam assassinated in november 1989) former afghan fighters led or participated in serious insurgencies in egypt, algeria, kashmir, somalia in 1990s , later creating transnational jihadist stream.

in february 1998, osama bin laden put declaration of world islamic front jihad against jews , crusaders in al-quds al-arabi newspaper. on 11 september 2001, 4 passenger planes hijacked in united states , crashed, destroying world trade center , damaging pentagon.

shia

in shia islam, jihad 1 of ten practices of religion, (though not 1 of 5 pillars). traditionally, twelver shi doctrine has differed of sunni islam on concept of jihad, jihad being seen lesser priority in shia theology , armed activism shia being limited person s immediate geography .

according number of sources, shia doctrine taught jihad (or @ least full scale jihad) can carried out under leadership of imam, (who return occultation in order bring absolute justice world). however, struggles defend islam permissible before return.

at least 1 important contemporary shia figure, ayatollah ruhollah khomeini, leader of iranian revolution , founder of islamic republic of iran, wrote treatise on greater jihad (i.e., internal/personal struggle against sin).

because of history of being oppressed, shias associated jihad passionate features, notably in remembrance of ashura. mahmoud m. ayoub says:

in islamic tradition jihad or struggle in way of god, whether armed struggle, or form of opposition of wrong, regarded 1 of essential requirements of person s faith muslim. shi î tradition carried requirement step further, making jihad 1 of pillars or foundations (arkan) of religion. if, therefore, husayn s struggle against umayyad regime must regarded act of jihad, then, in mind of devotees, participation of community in suffering , ascent truth of message must regarded extension of holy struggle of imam himself. hadith took title of chapter states point clearly. ja far al-sadiq said have declared al-mufaddal, 1 of closest disciples, sigh of sorrowful wrong done act of praise (tasbih) [of god], sorrow act of worship, , keeping of our secret struggle (jihad) in way of god ; imâm added, hadith should inscribed in letters of gold .

and

hence, concept of jihad (holy struggle) gained deeper , more personal meaning. whether through weeping, composition , recitation of poetry, showing compassion , doing poor or carrying arms, shi muslim saw himself helping imam in struggle against wrong (zulm) , gaining himself same merit (thawab) of fought , died him. ta ziyah, in broader sense sharing of entire life of suffering family of muhammad, has become shi community true meaning of compassion.

jihad has been used shia islamists in 20th century: ruhollah khomeini declared jihad on iraq in iran–iraq war, , shia bombers of western embassies , peacekeeping troops in lebanon called themselves, islamic jihad . nonetheless has not had high-profile or global significance had among sunni islamists. (the afghan jihad example led , populated sunni muslims.)

according national, changed syrian civil war, where, first time in history of shia islam, adherents seeping country fight in holy war defend doctrine. thus, shia , sunni fighters waging jihad against each other in syria.

evolution of jihad

some observers have noted evolution in rules of jihad—from original “classical” doctrine of 21st century salafi jihadism. according legal historian sadarat kadri, during last couple of centuries, incremental changes in islamic legal doctrine, (developed islamists otherwise condemn bid‘ah (innovation) in religion), have “normalized” once “unthinkable. idea muslims might blow god unheard of before 1983, , not until 1990s anywhere had tried justify killing innocent muslims not on battlefield.”

the first or “classical” doctrine of jihad developed towards end of eighth century, emphasized jihad of sword (jihad bil-saif) rather “jihad of heart”, contained many legal restrictions developed interpretations of both quran , hadith, such detailed rules involving “the initiation, conduct, termination” of jihad, treatment of prisoners, distribution of booty, etc. unless there sudden attack on muslim community, jihad not personal obligation (fard ayn) instead collective 1 (fard al-kifaya), had discharged `in way of god` (fi sabil allah), , directed caliph, discretion on conduct absolute. (this designed in part avoid incidents kharijia’s jihad against , killing of caliph ali, judged non-muslim.) martyrdom resulting attack on enemy no concern own safety praiseworthy, dying own hand (as opposed enemies) merited special place in hell. category of jihad considered collective obligation simplified offensive jihad in western texts.

based on 20th century interpretations of sayyid qutb, abdullah azzam, ruhollah khomeini, al-qaeda , others, many if not of self-proclaimed jihad fighters believe defensive global jihad personal obligation, means no caliph or muslim head of state needs declare it. killing in process of killing enemy act of martyrdom , brings special place in heaven, not special place in hell; , killing of muslim bystanders, (never mind non-muslims), should not impede acts of jihad. 1 analyst described new interpretation of jihad, “willful targeting of civilians non-state actor through unconventional means.”