Social and environmental factors Gender identity

in 1955, john money proposed gender identity malleable , determined whether child raised male or female in childhood. money s hypothesis has since been discredited, scholars have continued study effect of social factors on gender identity formation. in 1960s , 1970s, factors such absence of father, mother s wish daughter, or parental reinforcement patterns suggested influences; more recent theories suggesting parental psychopathology might partly influence gender identity formation have received minimal empirical evidence, 2004 article noting solid evidence importance of postnatal social factors lacking. 2008 study found parents of gender-dysphoric children showed no signs of psychopathological issues aside mild depression in mothers.

it has been suggested attitudes of child s parents may affect child s gender identity, although evidence minimal.

parental establishment of gender roles

parents not support gender nonconformity more have children firmer , stricter views on gender identity , gender roles. recent literature suggests trend towards less well-defined gender roles , identities, studies of parental coding of toys masculine, feminine, or neutral indicate parents increasingly code kitchens , in cases dolls neutral rather exclusively feminine. however, emily kane found many parents still showed negative responses items, activities, or attributes considered feminine, such domestic skills, nurturance, , empathy. research has indicated many parents attempt define gender sons in manner distances sons femininity, kane stating “the parental boundary maintenance work evident sons represents crucial obstacle limiting boys options, separating boys girls, devaluing activities marked feminine both boys , girls, , bolstering gender inequality , heteronormativity.”research radical lesbians untie self definition of woman , man regardless of sexual orientation; naples dives binary gender roles , how should enforced in queer couples children have heterosexual orientation. in gay couple, cis-gendered persons outside of community label gay couples having 1 “women” , other “man”. in reality not true, , queer couples should open how raise child , if want establish normal mom , dad roles.naples, nancy a. “from sws president: queer parenting in new millennium.” gender , society, vol. 18, no. 6, 2004, pp. 679–684. jstor, www.jstor.org/stable/4149389. radicalesbians. “woman identified woman.” 1970. print.

many parents form gendered expectations child before born, after determining child s sex through technology such ultrasound. child arrives gender-specific name, games, , ambitions. once child s sex determined, children raised in accordance man or woman, fitting male or female gender role defined partly parents.

when considering parents social class, lower-class families typically hold traditional gender roles, father works , mother, may work out of financial necessity, still takes care of household. however, middle-class professional couples typically negotiate division of labor , hold egalitarian ideology. these different views on gender child s parents can shape child s understanding of gender child s development of gender.

within study conducted hillary halpern hypothesized, , proven, parent behaviors, rather parent beliefs, regarding gender better predictors child’s attitude on gender. concluded mother’s behavior influential on child’s assumptions of child’s own gender. example, mothers practiced more traditional behaviors around children resulted in son displaying fewer stereotypes of male roles while daughter displayed more stereotypes of female roles. no correlation found between father’s behavior , children’s knowledge of stereotypes of own gender. concluded, however, fathers held belief of equality between sexes had children, sons, displayed fewer preconceptions of opposite gender.